Introduction to Social and Developmental Psychology

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Development psychology that can be related with cognition or memory in adulthood and ageing is  Cognitive Reserve Theory and Socio emotional selectivity Theory.  Cognitive Reserve Theory states that one who engage in different type of activities throughout living are able to maintained their cognitive actions in proactive manner (Facal and et. al., 2019). Socio emotional selectivity Theory that with increase in age the individual become more emotionally focused due to which they are able to develop more meaningful relationship where they connect on deep way. Their emotional stability help them to take wise decision in life when compared with other adults individuals. Social identity theory state that individual are tend to develop social identity during the time of interaction which develop their tendency to favour the in group participants. This basically means that more favoured behaviour are seen within same age group individuals as their emotional stability matches (Rocca and et. al., 2019). The Contact Hypothesis Theory state that to to reduce stereotypes among different age group it is essential that increased interaction among different group members must be facilitated.  

Development Psychology help in the studying the manner in which people grow, develop or adapt different life stages. The psychology help individual to understand the manner in which change facilitate among different age group individual. Cognitive Reserve Theory is a type of psychology theory reflects the way in which increase in age affect body ability to solve the challenges and interpret them. The theory suggest that with age the damage found it cognitive skills are facilitated through the pre-existing actions and approaches (Contil and et. al., 2021). Cognitive reserve are considered as the protective factor which help in facilitating actions during the time of cognitive decline. Cognitive reserve can be actively formed in individual when they are able to engage in different mental stimulating activities during adulthood. It is essential for adults to be involved in the different mind stimulating activities as it help them to facilitate their overall cognitive actions. As per the view of Anaj Soldan 2019, with increase in age of cognitive decline actions are seen individual due to which older age group individual faced it challenging to express their views. The cognitive reserve theory is a type of development theory which help in understanding the interconnection between neuropathology or brain and functional impairment among individuals. The theory help in understanding the susceptibility of cognitive actions to facilitate day to day action with brain ageing.

Theory suggest that in order to cope with brain action in active manner it is essential for different age group individual to incorporate different brain associated activities    (Leel and et. al., 2019). When individuals are able to connect actively then it will help them to use their preserve cognitive actions to cope up with challenges faced by them in their late adulthood. Cognitive reserve theory suggest that the individual who are able to facilitate actions actively are able to maintain cognitive functioning when compared with one who has fewer mental stimulation. As per the case study of Hussain, the family member have gathered to celebrate 75^th birthday where massive argument with different age group members are carried out. The argument was facilitated on to compared cognitive functioning or memory skills of individual who are engage in intellectual stimulating activities and limited mental actions (Evansl and et. al.,  2019). The Cognitive reserve theory state that one who is engaged in intellectual stimulating activities are able to facilitate better cognitive functioning in their late adulthood.

Uncle Ismail is 70-year old but hold good cognitive functioning as he has able to engaged in different memory based activities throughout their life time. Uncle Ishmail decision and action are anticipated actively throughout the life course as was involved in different mind associated activities. It simple help in explaining the fact that why uncle Ismail is considered as the wise individual due to his accumulated cognitive reserve. The theory does not suggest that cognitive reserve in individual is entirely a preventable actions. But the theory suggest due to having active participation in different memory based activities cognitive reserve is developed which delay the onset of age-related health challenges (Almeida-Meza,  Steptoe and Cadar, 2021). The adults having cognitive reserve are able to incorporate less challenge during their ageing when compared with others. Age-related cognitive changes onset is reduced and are better able to maintain social interaction and relationships with others.  

The theory for development psychology with respect to this case study will include the theory of socio-emotional selectivity theory (Shang, 2020). This particular theory was proposed by Cartensen in the year 1993, which suggests that as human being age, there are bound to focus more on their emotional well being and prioritize their family rather than their career related prospects. With respect to the application of the socio-emotional selectivity theory on the patient, it can be articulated that on the occasion of birthday of Uncle Ishmail, where there is an age related discussion happening indicating the an individual becomes wiser with an increase in their age. It is also important to acknowledge that the implications of this theory also indicate that older adults are more likely to engage themselves in meaningful relationships with an increase in their age  (Kotzur and et. al.,2019). In context to the family gathering of The Hussain family, the findings of the theory  articulate that the socio-emotional selectivity theory the behaviours and preferences of the older individuals. It can be assumed from the case study that the aged members of the society are sharing their experiences of becoming wise with their age. It can be identified that older members tend to focus more on fostering a good relationship with their families and close ones. They also tend to focus on developing meaningful connections with their loved ones as compared to their career oriented goals.

The conversations being held at the BBQ showcase that the the elder individuals are very much interested in having a good time and emotionally foster a bond with their family. One indicator of this aspect includes reminiscing of their past experiences along due to which they share their stories of living their lives with the close family and friends. The implications of the theory also indicate that young people or children of the Hussain family have a better chance of engage themselves in stimulating debates with the older and wiser generation due to their argumentative nature  (Kim and Effken, 2019). It is critical to note that as per this theory most old adults exhibit emotional regulation and well being. The older adults are also very likely to accumulate their life experiences and share it with the younger members of their family in the form of perceived wisdom. However, it should be noted that according to socio-emotional selectivity can not be implemented on older adults that are bound to experience cognitive decline. The theory of socio-emotional selectivity states that older adults are likely to maintain their cognitive functioning as they have a high likelihood to engage in intellectually stimulating conversations and activities. The focus on these theories is to shift their cognitive abilities to their emotional abilities in the presence of their close ones and families  (Glock and et. al., 2019).

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Inter-group behaviour theory 1: Social identity theory

In social psychology, social identity theory explain the relationship between social and personal identities. The main aim of this theory is to specify and predict the conditions under which people think of themselves as group members or an individual. Moreover, while evaluating the inter-group behaviour betwixt younger and older family members, social identity theory was proven effective as it present significant insights (Charness, & Chen, 2020). The social identity theory recommends that people derive part of their self-concept form their members in social groups. They exhibit out-group discrimination and in-group favouritism. Considering the case of Hussain family, younger and older adults can be taken as different social groups on the basis of differences in their ages. As per the social identity theory, people tend to create positive social identity fir their in-group, which result to inclination for positive speciality and tendency to think in-group as superior to out group. It has been analysed that the third perspective on origin of ageism is theory of social identity (Scheepers, & Ellemers, 2019). As per the this theory, preconception is an attitude regarding a social group to which an individual experiences sense of belonging or not, depends on age. It has been observed that with the age, identity of an individual becomes less ingrained. Eventually, age is an important aspect of identity of an individual and replace other kinds of identity, like, ethnicity, gender and religion. Previous research studies have demonstrated that older people experience ethnic associated identity in comparison to their younger ones. The social identity theory was introduced with the aim of explaining how individual develop and defines their identity in society or family. As per this theory, three psychological steps are important: social categorisation, social comparison and social identification.

Implementing this theory to the case study of Hussain family, it seems like, both younger adults and older family member exhibit out-group discrimination and in-group favouritism. It can be seen that younger family members talk about the cognition and brain cells decline when a person reaches to older age (Rather, et. al., 2021). Younger members of the family, who talk about the forgetfulness of older adults can be involving in social stereotypes and allocating cognitive decline merely to older age group, whereas focusing on their won cognitive capabilities as superiority. Additionally, older adults can demonstrate in-group favouritism by emphasising their accumulated life experiences and wisdom, considering themselves superior in comparison to intellectual capabilities of younger generation. It is notable that the implementation of social identity theory must be performed carefully, because dynamics of inter-group may differ, majorly relies upon individual differences and specific context within groups. It is not required that all persons within a social group can demonstrate similar extent of out-group discrimination and in-group favouritism. Overall, theory of social identity emphasise on diverse expressions of ageism in different groups of age (Pearson, & Rose, 2021). This theory outlines a special characteristics of ageism, which, in comparison with other kinds of discrimination and prejudice, is not directed to different out-groups, but instead to symbolise a agitation of death and its following deterioration. Ti cope with this agitation, people specialise themselves from  older age people by opting distinct strategies involving identities of identities, a difference betwixt third and fourth age, and theories such as active and successful ageing. Bulter emphasised on negative stereotypes and recent notion of ageism involve both negative and positive stereotypes regarding older adults. As per the stereotype content model, older age group are perceived as unskilful but warm. Negative stereotype and discriminative attitudes towards older age group are increasing over diverse areas of society (Hewstone, & Stroebe, 2021). Consequences of ageism lead to fear among people, due to which they develop different strategies in order to make present themselves distinct from older age group. In short, theory of social identity outlined the human tendency in order to exhibit out-group discrimination and in-group favouritism in the basis of social group membership (Edwards, et. al., 2019). There are various research studies highlighted that chronological age is a significant label of subjective and objective transformation which get revealed during the lifespan of an individual. As per these studies, older age transformation and deterioration is closely related with declination in physical like motor and sensory performance.

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The inter-group behaviour theory or the contact hypothesis theory, is a theory of social psychology, which was proposed in the 1954 by Allport. As per the implications of this theory, intergroup contact has the potential to reduce the onset of occurrence of prejudice and also enhance and foster good relations with their families and close friends. It is critical to acknowledge that this particular theory can help older individuals to share their experiences and also contribute to improvement in attitudes, thereby, leading to reduced stereotypes. Taking into consideration the case study of the Hussain family, it can be highlighted that the theory of contact hypothesis states that the inter group behavioural aspects showcased by the different members of the family, both younger and older, are different from one another. There is a sense of positive and negative interactions and conversations happening between individuals. Both the generations of individuals have been showcasing unique qualities and contribute to the conversations  actively (Choi and et. al., 2022). Communication between friends and family is an important aspect in order foster a harmonious relationship and also to eliminate the possibility of misunderstandings. Maintaining active communication supports enhancement of bonds between families as highlighted by the theory of contact hypothesis.

As highlighted by Shelly Zhou et. al., 2019, the successful implementation of the theory of contact hypothesis ensures that an equal rapport should be maintained among different members of the Hussain family. A sense of understanding should be maintained throughout in order to ensure that all the individuals belonging to different age groups share a common aim and goal for facilitation of cooperation for celebrating the birthday of Uncle Ismail. In addition to that, the overall effectiveness of the inter-group contact should be monitored and reviewed taking into consideration the individual attitudes and beliefs of the each and every member (Chiarelli and Batistoni, 2021). In simpler words, it can be explained that the theory of contact hypothesis has the potential to reduce prejudice among a particular group. Therefore, in order to reduce the possibility of prejudice, individuals should ensure that active communication measures should be implementation by both the parties to facilitate social contact between different groups, which in this case study is the older and younger generation gathered at Hussain family house  (Simons and et. al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

As per the discussion held in above report, it can be concluded that Cognition and memory are essential factor due to which human development can be facilitated. It has been observed that as cognition and memory allow individual to recall or drown out their understanding on the actions and behaviour in proactive manner. The report signifies the social and developmental theory in order to explain physical and mental declination of an individual when reaches in older age. The paper revealed the fact that with increasing age, cognitive ability of individual are altered as body functioning slow down and ability to perceive actions are decreased. In addition, negative stereotype and current perception regarding ageism lead to discriminative behaviour and prejudice towards older age group. Theory of socio-emotional selectivity and cognitive reserve highlighted on shifting priorities and cognitive modifications which takes place when an individual gets older. Both these theories have been provided an important insight into behaviours and experiences of older adults by considering the given case study. Moreover, theory of contact hypothesis helped in order understand inter-group dynamics betwixt younger family adults and older people, focusing the significance of promoting positive contact, fostering intergenerational understanding and challenging stereotype. Overall, in order to promote healthy ageing, it very important to remove all the negative stereotype regarding ageism and establish intergenerational understanding.

REFERENCES 

Books and Journals

Almeida-Meza, P., Steptoe, A. and Cadar, D., 2021. Markers of cognitive reserve and dementia incidence in the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 218(5), pp.243-251.

Charness, G., & Chen, Y. (2020). Social identity, group behavior, and teams. Annual Review of Economics, 12, 691-713.

Chiarelli, T.M. and Batistoni, S.S.T., 2021. An analysis of socioemotional selectivity theory in the context of older adults’ use of Facebook. Educational Gerontology, 47(1), pp.13-24.

Choi, W., Liechty, T., Naar, J.J., West, S.T., Wong, J.D. and Son, J.S., 2022. “We’re a family and that gives me joy”: Exploring interpersonal relationships in older women’s softball using socio-emotional selectivity theory. Leisure Sciences, 44(2), pp.183-200.

Conti, L., Riccitelli, G.C., Preziosa, P., Vizzino, C., Marchesi, O., Rocca, M.A. and Filippi, M., 2021. Effect of cognitive reserve on structural and functional MRI measures in healthy subjects: a multiparametric assessment. Journal of Neurology, 268, pp.1780-1791.

Edwards, C., Edwards, A., Stoll, B., Lin, X., & Massey, N. (2019). Evaluations of an artificial intelligence instructor's voice: Social Identity Theory in human-robot interactions. Computers in Human Behavior, 90, 357-362.

Evans, I.E., Llewellyn, D.J., Matthews, F.E., Woods, R.T., Brayne, C. and Clare, L., 2019. Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in older people with depression and anxiety. Aging & mental health, 23(12), pp.1691-1700.

Facal, D., Valladares‐Rodriguez, S., Lojo‐Seoane, C., Pereiro, A.X., Anido‐Rifon, L. and Juncos‐Rabadán, O., 2019. Machine learning approaches to studying the role of cognitive reserve in conversion from mild cognitive impairment to dementia. International journal of geriatric psychiatry, 34(7), pp.941-949.

Fraser, E.E., Downing, M.G., Biernacki, K., McKenzie, D.P. and Ponsford, J.L., 2019. Cognitive reserve and age predict cognitive recovery after mild to severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of neurotrauma, 36(19), pp.2753-2761.

Glock, S., Kovacs, C. and Pit‐ten Cate, I., 2019. Teachers’ attitudes towards ethnic minority students: Effects of schools’ cultural diversity. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), pp.616-634.

Hewstone, M., & Stroebe, W. (Eds.). (2021). An introduction to social psychology. John Wiley & Sons.

Kim, N.G. and Effken, J.A., 2019. How the future is specified: A hypothesis. In Studies in perception and action III (pp. 187-190). Routledge.

Kotzur, P.F., Schäfer, S.J. and Wagner, U., 2019. Meeting a nice asylum seeker: Intergroup contact changes stereotype content perceptions and associated emotional prejudices, and encourages solidarity‐based collective action intentions. British Journal of Social Psychology, 58(3), pp.668-690.

Lee, D.H., Lee, P., Seo, S.W., Roh, J.H., Oh, M., Oh, J.S., Oh, S.J., Kim, J.S. and Jeong, Y., 2019. Neural substrates of cognitive reserve in Alzheimer's disease spectrum and normal aging. Neuroimage, 186, pp.690-702.

Pearson, A., & Rose, K. (2021). A conceptual analysis of autistic masking: Understanding the narrative of stigma and the illusion of choice. Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 52-60.

Rather, R. A., Tehseen, S., Itoo, M. H., & Parrey, S. H. (2021). Customer brand identification, affective commitment, customer satisfaction, and brand trust as antecedents of customer behavioral intention of loyalty: An empirical study in the hospitality sector. In Consumer Behaviour in Hospitality and Tourism (pp. 44-65). Routledge.

Rocca, M.A., Riccitelli, G.C., Meani, A., Pagani, E., Del Sette, P., Martinelli, V., Comi, G., Falini, A. and Filippi, M., 2019. Cognitive reserve, cognition, and regional brain damage in MS: a 2-year longitudinal study. Multiple Sclerosis Journal, 25(3), pp.372-381.

Scheepers, D., & Ellemers, N. (2019). Social identity theory. Social psychology in action: Evidence-based interventions from theory to practice, 129-143.

Shang, Q., 2020. Social support, rural/urban residence, and depressive symptoms among Chinese adults. Journal of community psychology, 48(3), pp.849-861.

Simons, M.E., Reijnders, J.S.A.M., Janssens, M., Lataster, J.J.E. and Jacobs, N.E., 2022, July. Exploring the SEST theory: Positive affect as mediator in the association between bonding social capital and well-being in later life. In European Conference of Positive Psychology, Reykjavik.

 

[Online]

Defining Cognitive Reserve and Implications for Cognitive Aging, 2019 [Online] Available through <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7812665/>

The Extended Contact Hypothesis: A Meta-Analysis on 20 Years of Research, 2019 [Online] Available through <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29671374/ >

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: The Role of Perceived Endings in Human Motivation, 2021 [Online] Available through <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34718558/ >


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